J. Maynard-smith, The evolution of sex, 1978.

S. Otto, The Evolutionary Enigma of Sex, The American Naturalist, vol.174, issue.S1, pp.1-14, 2009.
DOI : 10.1086/599084

G. Bell, The Costs of Reproduction and Their Consequences, The American Naturalist, vol.116, issue.1, pp.45-76, 1980.
DOI : 10.1086/283611

M. Lynch, Destabilizing Hybridization, General-Purpose Genotypes and Geographic Parthenogenesis, The Quarterly Review of Biology, vol.59, issue.3, pp.257-290, 1984.
DOI : 10.1086/413902

F. Kondrashov and A. Kondrashov, Multidimensional epistasis and the disadvantage of sex, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.98, issue.21, pp.12089-12092, 2001.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.211214298

L. Becks and A. Agrawal, The Evolution of Sex Is Favoured During Adaptation to New Environments, PLoS Biology, vol.18, issue.5, p.1001321, 2012.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001317.s007

D. Roze, Disentangling the Benefits of Sex, PLoS Biology, vol.468, issue.5, p.1001321, 2012.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001321.g001

L. Nunney, The Maintenance of Sex by Group Selection, Evolution, vol.43, issue.2, pp.245-257, 1989.
DOI : 10.2307/2409205

A. Vandel, La parthénogenese geographique. Contribution a l'e ´tude biologique et cytologique de la parthénogenese naturelle, Bull Biol France et de la Belgique, vol.62, pp.164-182, 1928.

M. Beaton and P. Hebert, Geographical Parthenogenesis and Polyploidy in Daphnia pulex, The American Naturalist, vol.132, issue.6, pp.837-845, 1988.
DOI : 10.1086/284892

J. Law and B. Crespi, The evolution of geographic parthenogenesis in Timema walking-sticks, Molecular Ecology, vol.10, issue.8, pp.1471-1489, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-294x.1998.00308.x

C. Moritz, S. Donnellan, M. Adams, and P. Baverstock, The Origin and Evolution of Parthenogenesis in Heteronotia binoei (Gekkonidae): Extensive Genotypic Diversity Among Parthenogens, Evolution, vol.43, issue.5, pp.994-1003, 1989.
DOI : 10.2307/2409580

M. Kearney, Why is sex so unpopular in the Australian desert?, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.18, issue.12, pp.605-607, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tree.2003.09.021

P. Vandijk, Ecological and evolutionary opportunities of apomixis: insights from Taraxacum and Chondrilla, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.358, issue.1434, pp.1113-1121, 2003.
DOI : 10.1098/rstb.2003.1302

E. Hörandl, The complex causality of geographical parthenogenesis, New Phytologist, vol.62, issue.0, pp.525-538, 2006.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1442-1984.1990.tb00203.x

J. West and G. Zuccarello, Biogeography of sexual and asexual populations in Bostrychia moritziana (Rhodomelaceae, Rhodophyta), Phycological Research, vol.36, issue.2, pp.115-138, 1999.
DOI : 10.1111/j.0022-3646.1990.00495.x

J. Fierst, J. Krubler, and S. Dudgeon, Spatial distribution and reproductive phenology of sexual and asexual Mastocarpus papillatus (Rhodophyta), Phycologia, vol.49, issue.3, pp.274-282, 2010.
DOI : 10.2216/PH09-41.1

A. Tatarenkov, L. Bergstrom, R. Jonsson, E. Serrao, and L. Kautsky, Intriguing asexual life in marginal populations of the brown seaweed Fucus vesiculosus, Molecular Ecology, vol.30, issue.2, pp.647-651, 2005.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02425.x

T. Kawecki, Adaptation to Marginal Habitats, Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, vol.39, issue.1, pp.321-342, 2008.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.38.091206.095622

W. Hamilton, Sex versus Non-Sex versus Parasite, Oikos, vol.35, issue.2, pp.282-290, 1980.
DOI : 10.2307/3544435

C. Lively, C. Craddock, and R. Vrijenhoek, Red Queen hypothesis supported by parasitism in sexual and clonal fish, Nature, vol.344, issue.6269, pp.864-866, 1990.
DOI : 10.1038/344864a0

W. Hamilton, R. Axelrod, and R. Tanese, Sexual reproduction as an adaptation to resist parasites (a review)., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.87, issue.9, pp.3566-3573, 1990.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.87.9.3566

O. Cuellar, On the Origin of Parthenogenesis in Vertebrates: The Cytogenetic Factors, The American Naturalist, vol.108, issue.963, pp.625-648, 1974.
DOI : 10.1086/282940

J. Peck, J. Yearsley, and D. Waxman, Explaining the geographic distributions of sexual and asexual populations, Nature, vol.391, issue.6670, pp.889-892, 1998.
DOI : 10.1038/36099

C. Haag and D. Ebert, A new hypothesis to explain geographic parthenogenesis, pp.539-544, 2004.

T. Fang, Some genetic features revealed from culturing the haploid cells of kelps, Hydrobiologia, vol.116117, pp.317-318, 1984.

L. Oppliger, A. Peters, and J. Correa, *, Journal of Phycology, vol.116117, issue.6, pp.1295-1301, 2007.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2007.00408.x

J. Bothwell, M. D. Peters, A. Cock, J. Coelho, and S. , Role of endoreduplication and apomeiosis during parthenogenetic reproduction in the model brown alga Ectocarpus, New Phytologist, vol.14, issue.Suppl., pp.111-121, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03357.x

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01254018

T. Dieck, Bartsch) I (1992) North Pacific and North Atlantic digitate Laminaria species (Phaeophyta): hybridization experiments and temperature responses, Phycologia, vol.31, pp.147-163

E. Ar-gall, A. Asensi, M. D. Kloareg, and B. , Parthenogenesis and apospory in the Laminariales: A flow cytometry analysis, European Journal of Phycology, vol.12, issue.4, pp.369-380, 1996.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00027692

R. Lewis, Chromosomes of the brown algae, Phycologia, vol.35, issue.1, pp.19-40, 1996.
DOI : 10.2216/i0031-8884-35-1-19.1

K. Lüning, Seaweeds: Their environment, biogeography and ecophysiology, 1990.

C. Billot, C. Engel, S. Rousvoal, B. Kloareg, and M. Valero, Current patterns, habitat discontinuities and population genetic structure: the case of the kelp Laminaria digitata in the English Channel, Marine Ecology Progress Series, vol.253, pp.111-121, 2003.
DOI : 10.3354/meps253111

M. Valero, C. Destombe, S. Mauger, C. Ribout, and C. Engel, Using genetic tools for sustainable management of kelps: a literature review and the example of Laminaria digitata, Cah Biol Mar, vol.52, pp.467-483, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01218842

L. Couceiro, M. Robuchon, C. Destombe, and M. Valero, ???, Aquatic Living Resources, vol.26, issue.2, pp.197-205, 2013.
DOI : 10.1051/alr/2012027

V. Méléder, J. Populus, B. Guillaumont, T. Perrot, and P. Mouquet, Predictive modelling of seabed habitats: case study of subtidal kelp forests on the coast of Brittany, France, Marine Biology, vol.239, issue.4, pp.1525-1541, 2010.
DOI : 10.1007/s00227-010-1426-4

R. Gallon, M. Robuchon, B. Leroy, L. Gall, L. Valero et al., in press) Twenty years of observed and predicted changes in subtidal red seaweed assemblages along a biogeographical transition zone: inferring potential causes from environmental data, J Biogeography, 2014.

C. Billot, S. Rousval, A. Estoup, J. Epplen, and P. Saumitou-laprade, Isolation and characterization of microsatellite markers in the nuclear genome of the brown alga Laminaria digitata (Phaeophyceae, Mol Ecol, vol.7, pp.1771-1788, 1998.

R. Wattier, J. Dallas, C. Destombe, P. Saumitou-laprade, and M. Valero, SINGLE LOCUS MICROSATELLITES IN GRACILARIALES (RHODOPHYTA): HIGH LEVEL OF GENETIC VARIABILITY WITHIN GRACILARIA GRACILIS AND CONSERVATION IN RELATED SPECIES1, Journal of Phycology, vol.33, issue.5, pp.868-880, 1997.
DOI : 10.1111/j.0022-3646.1997.00868.x

M. Nei, Molecular Evolutionary Genetics, 1987.

J. Goudet, FSTAT, a program to estimate and test gene diversities and fixation indices Version 2, 2001.

B. Weir and C. Cockerham, Estimating F-Statistics for the Analysis of Population Structure, Evolution, vol.38, issue.6, pp.1358-1370, 1984.
DOI : 10.2307/2408641

R. Peakall and P. Smouse, genalex 6: genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research, Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.35, issue.1, pp.288-295, 2006.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2540.1999.00518.x

M. Dorken and C. Eckert, Severely reduced sexual reproduction in northern populations of a clonal plant, Decodonverticillatus (Lythraceae), Journal of Ecology, vol.85, issue.3, pp.339-350, 2001.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2745.2001.00558.x

S. Arnaud-haond and K. Belkhir, genclone: a computer program to analyse genotypic data, test for clonality and describe spatial clonal organization, Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.106, issue.1, pp.15-17, 2007.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1471-8286.2006.01522.x

D. Marie, N. Simon, L. Guillou, F. Partensky, D. Vaulot et al., DNA/RNA Analysis of Phytoplankton by Flow Cytometry, Current protocols in cytometry, pp.1-18, 2000.
DOI : 10.1002/0471142956.cy1112s11

D. Marie, N. Simon, and D. Vaulot, Phytoplancton cell counting by flow cytometry, Algal Culturing Techniques, pp.1-15, 2005.

I. Bartsch, C. Wiencke, K. Bischof, C. Buchholz, and B. Buck, : recent insights and developments, European Journal of Phycology, vol.24, issue.1, pp.1-86, 2008.
DOI : 10.1023/A:1008197610793

I. Bartsch, J. Vogt, C. Pehlke, and D. Hanelt, at Helgoland (North Sea), Journal of Phycology, vol.58, issue.6, pp.1061-1073, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/jpy.12125

M. Robuchon, L. Gall, L. Mauger, S. Valero, and M. , Contrasting genetic diversity patterns in two sister kelp species co-distributed along the coast of Brittany, France, Molecular Ecology, vol.28, issue.11, pp.2669-2685, 2014.
DOI : 10.1111/mec.12774

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01138773

T. Fang, A summary of the genetic studies of Laminaria japonica in China, pp.123-136, 1983.

A. Asensi, E. Gall, D. Marie, C. Billot, P. Dion et al., CLONAL PROPAGATION OF LAMINARIA DIGITATA (PHAEOPHYCEAE) SPOROPHYTES THROUGH A DIPLOID CELL-FILAMENT SUSPENSION, Journal of Phycology, vol.37, issue.3, pp.411-417, 2001.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2001.037003411.x

J. Simon, F. Delmote, C. Rispe, and T. Crease, Phylogenetic relationships between parthenogens and their sexual relatives: the possible routes to parthenogenesis in animals, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, vol.79, issue.1, pp.151-163, 2003.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1095-8312.2003.00175.x

P. Stenberg and A. Saura, Cytology of asexual animals Lost Sex: The Evolutionary Biology of Parthenogenesis, pp.63-74, 2009.

K. Mills and I. Kaczmarska, Autogamic reproductive behavior and sex cell structure in Thalassiosira angulata (Bacillariophyta), Botanica Marina, vol.49, issue.5/6, pp.417-430, 2006.
DOI : 10.1515/BOT.2006.053

E. Suomalainen, A. Saura, and J. Lokki, Cytology and evolution in parthenogenesis, Boca Raton, vol.216, 1987.

G. Stebbins, Variation and Evolution in plants, 1950.

S. Adolfsson, Y. Michalakis, D. Paczesniak, S. Bode, and R. Butlin, EVALUATION OF ELEVATED PLOIDY AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION AS ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS FOR GEOGRAPHIC PARTHENOGENESIS IN EUCYPRIS VIRENS OSTRACODS, Evolution, vol.73, issue.4, pp.986-997, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00872.x

M. Kearney, Hybridization, glaciation and geographical parthenogenesis, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.20, issue.9, pp.495-502, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tree.2005.06.005

M. Kearney, Response to Lundmark: Polyploidization, hybridization and geographical parthenogenesis, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.21, issue.1, p.10, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tree.2005.10.013

M. Lundmark, Polyploidization, hybridization and geographical parthenogenesis, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.21, issue.1, p.9, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tree.2005.10.007

V. Raybaud, G. Beaugrand, E. Goberville, G. Delebecq, and C. Destombe, Decline in Kelp in West Europe and Climate, PLoS ONE, vol.24, issue.6, p.66044, 2013.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0066044.s003

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01110791