J. Renkawitz and M. Sixt, Mechanisms of force generation and force transmission during interstitial leukocyte migration, EMBO Rep, vol.11, pp.744-750, 2010.

D. J. Webb, J. T. Parsons, and A. F. Horwitz, Adhesion assembly, disassembly and turnover in migrating cells-over and over and over again, Nat. Cell Biol, vol.4, pp.97-100, 2002.

A. J. Ridley, M. A. Schwartz, K. Burridge, R. A. Firtel, M. H. Ginsberg et al., Cell migration: Integrating signals from front to back, Science, vol.302, pp.1704-1709, 2003.

P. Friedl and K. Wolf, Plasticity of cell migration: A multiscale tuning model, J. Cell Biol, vol.188, pp.11-19, 2009.

P. Monzo, Y. K. Chong, C. Guetta-terrier, A. Krishnasamy, S. R. Sathe et al., Mechanical confinement triggers glioma linear migration dependent on formin FHOD3, Mol. Biol. Cell, vol.27, pp.1246-1261, 2016.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01401378

F. Van-zijl, G. Krupitza, and W. Mikulits, Initial steps of metastasis: Cell invasion and endothelial transmigration, Mutat. Res, vol.728, pp.23-34, 2011.

A. Huttenlocher and A. R. Horwitz, Integrins in cell migration, Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol, vol.3, p.5074, 2011.

O. T. Fackler and R. Grosse, Cell motility through plasma membrane blebbing, J. Cell Biol, vol.181, pp.879-884, 2008.

A. J. Lomakin, K. Lee, S. J. Han, D. A. Bui, M. Davidson et al., Competition for actin between two distinct F-actin networks defines a bistable switch for cell polarization, Nat. Cell Biol, vol.17, p.1435, 2015.

D. A. Lauffenburger and A. F. Horwitz, Cell migration: A physically integrated molecular process, Cell, vol.84, pp.359-369, 1996.

Y. H. Tee, T. Shemesh, V. Thiagarajan, R. F. Hariadi, K. L. Anderson et al., Cellular chirality arising from the self-organization of the actin cytoskeleton, Nat. Cell Biol, vol.17, pp.445-457, 2015.

A. M. Turing, The chemical basis of morphogenesis, Philos. Trans. R. Soc., B, vol.237, pp.37-72, 1952.

A. C. Callan-jones, J. Joanny, and J. Prost, Viscous-fingering-like instability of cell fragments, Phys. Rev. Lett, vol.100, p.258106, 2008.

C. Blanch-mercader and J. Casademunt, Spontaneous motility of actin lamellar fragments, Phys. Rev. Lett, vol.110, p.78102, 2013.

R. J. Hawkins, M. Piel, G. Faure-andre, A. M. Lennon-dumenil, J. F. Joanny et al., Pushing off the walls: A mechanism of cell motility in confinement, Phys. Rev. Lett, vol.102, p.58103, 2009.

A. C. Callan-jones and R. Voituriez, Active gel model of amoeboid cell motility, New J. Phys, vol.15, p.25022, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01586958

V. Ruprecht, S. Wieser, A. Callan-jones, M. Smutny, H. Morita et al., Cortical contractility triggers a stochastic switch to fast amoeboid cell motility, Cell, vol.160, pp.673-685, 2015.

L. P. Cramer, Forming the cell rear first: Breaking cell symmetry to trigger directed cell migration, Nat. Cell Biol, vol.12, pp.628-632, 2010.

T. D. Pollard and G. G. Borisy, Cellular motility driven by assembly and disassembly of actin filaments, Cell, vol.112, pp.453-465, 2003.

S. Munevar, Y. Wang, and M. Dembo, Traction force microscopy of migrating normal and H-ras transformed 3T3 fibroblasts, Biophys. J, vol.80, pp.1744-1757, 2001.

P. T. Yam, C. A. Wilson, L. Ji, B. Hebert, E. L. Barnhart et al., Actin-myosin network reorganization breaks symmetry at the cell rear to spontaneously initiate polarized cell motility, J. Cell Biol, vol.178, pp.1207-1221, 2007.

J. P. Butler, I. M. Toli?-nørrelykke, B. Fabry, and J. J. Fredberg, Traction fields, moments, and strain energy that cells exert on their surroundings, Am. J. Physiol.: Cell Physiol, vol.282, pp.595-605, 2002.

M. Dembo and Y. Wang, Stresses at the cell-to-substrate interface during locomotion of fibroblasts, Biophys. J, vol.76, pp.2307-2316, 1999.

J. Lafaurie-janvore, P. Maiuri, I. Wang, M. Pinot, J. Manneville1 et al., ESCRT-III assembly and cytokinetic abscission are induced by tension release in the intercellular bridge, Science, vol.339, pp.1625-1629, 2013.

Q. Tseng, I. Wang, E. Duchemin-pelletier, A. Azioune, N. Carpi et al., A new micropatterning method of soft substrates reveals that different tumorigenic signals can promote or reduce cell contraction levels, Lab Chip, vol.11, pp.2231-2240, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00611335

A. D. Doyle, F. W. Wang, K. Matsumoto, and K. M. Yamada, One-dimensional topography underlies three-dimensional fibrillar cell migration, J. Cell Biol, vol.184, pp.481-490, 2009.

S. L. Schuster, F. J. Segerer, F. A. Gegenfurtner, K. Kick, C. Schreiber et al., Contractility as a global regulator of cellular morphology, velocity, and directionality in low-adhesive fibrillary micro-environments, Biomaterials, vol.102, pp.137-147, 2016.

K. Mandal, I. Wang, E. Vitiello, L. A. Orellana, and M. Balland, Cell dipole behaviour revealed by ECM sub-cellular geometry, Nat. Commun, vol.5, p.5749, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02063891

A. Stéphanou, S. L. Floc'h, and A. Chauvière, A hybrid model to test the importance of mechanical cues driving cell migration in angiogenesis, Math. Model. Nat. Phenom, vol.10, pp.142-166, 2015.

M. Bergert, A. Erzberger, R. A. Desai, I. M. Aspalter, A. C. Oates et al., Force transmission during adhesion-independent migration, Nat. Cell Biol, vol.17, pp.524-529, 2015.

T. J. Mitchison and L. P. Cramer, Actin-based cell motility and cell locomotion, Cell, vol.84, pp.371-379, 1996.

B. Ladoux, R. Mège, and X. Trepat, Front-rear polarization by mechanical cues: From single cells to tissues, Trends Cell Biol, vol.26, pp.420-433, 2016.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01307708

H. Wu, M. Thiébaud, W. Hu, A. Farutin, S. Rafaï et al., Amoeboid motion in confined geometry, Phys. Rev. E, vol.92, p.50701, 2015.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01230092

L. B. Smilenov, A. Mikhailov, R. J. Pelham, E. E. Marcantonio, and G. G. Gundersen, Focal adhesion motility revealed in stationary fibroblasts, Science, vol.286, pp.1172-1174, 1999.

K. Kruse, J. F. Joanny, F. Jülicher, J. Prost, and K. Sekimoto, Generic theory of active polar gels: A paradigm for cytoskeletal dynamics, Eur. Phys. J. E Soft Matter, vol.16, pp.5-16, 2005.

L. Valon, F. Etoc, A. Remorino, F. Di-pietro, X. Morin et al., Predictive spatiotemporal manipulation of signaling perturbations using optogenetics, Biophys. J, vol.109, pp.1785-1797, 2015.

C. G. Galbraith, K. M. Yamada, and M. P. Sheetz, The relationship between force and focal complex development, J. Cell Biol, vol.159, pp.695-705, 2002.

P. Maiuri, J. Rupprecht, S. Wieser, V. Ruprecht, O. Bénichou et al., Actin flows mediate a universal coupling between cell speed and cell persistence, Cell, vol.161, pp.374-386, 2015.

P. Maiuri, E. Terriac, P. Paul-gilloteaux, T. Vignaud, K. Mcnally et al., The first World Cell Race, Curr. Biol, vol.22, pp.673-675, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00744751

Z. Liu, P. Bun, N. Audugé, M. Coppey-moisan, and N. Borghi, Vinculin head-tail interaction defines multiple early mechanisms for cell substrate rigidity sensing, Integr. Biol, vol.8, pp.693-703, 2016.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01401565

M. Kovács, J. Tóth, C. Hetényi, A. Málnási-csizmadia, and J. R. Seller, Mechanism of Blebbistatin inhibition of myosin II, J. Biol. Chem, vol.279, pp.35557-35563, 2004.

J. K. Slack-davis, K. H. Martin, R. W. Tilghman, M. Iwanicki, E. J. Ung et al., Cellular characterization of a novel focal adhesion kinase inhibitor, J. Biol. Chem, vol.282, pp.14845-14852, 2007.

J. Renkawitz, K. Schumann, M. Weber, T. Lämmermann, H. Pflicke et al., Adaptive force transmission in amoeboid cell migration, Nat. Cell Biol, vol.11, pp.1438-1443, 2009.

Y. Liu, M. L. Berre, F. Lautenschlaeger, P. Maiuri, A. Callan-jones et al., Confinement and low adhesion induce fast amoeboid migration of slow mesenchymal cells, Cell, vol.160, pp.659-672, 2015.

J. Zhang, W. Guo, and Y. Wang, Microtubules stabilize cell polarity by localizing rear signals, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A, vol.111, pp.16383-16388, 2014.

S. Etienne-manneville and A. Hall, Integrin-mediated activation of Cdc42 controls cell polarity in migrating astrocytes through PKC?, Cell, vol.106, pp.489-498, 2001.

T. Vignaud, H. Ennomani, and M. Théry, Polyacrylamide hydrogel micropatterning, Methods Cell Biol, vol.120, pp.93-116, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00982140

J. R. Tse and A. J. Engler, Preparation of hydrogel substrates with tunable mechanical properties, Curr. Protoc. Cell Biol. Chapter, vol.10, p.16, 2010.

U. Horzum, B. Ozdil, and D. Pesen-okvur, Step-by-step quantitative analysis of focal adhesions, vol.1, pp.56-59, 2014.

B. Sabass, M. L. Gardel, C. M. Waterman, and U. S. Schwarz, High resolution traction force microscopy based on experimental and computational advances, Biophys. J, vol.94, pp.207-220, 2008.

, We thank L. Blanchoin's Cytomorpholab in Grenoble for providing us RPE1 cells and H. Maiato from the University of Porto for providing us with NIH-3T3 cells. Furthermore, we want to thank A. Kyumurkov at the Institute of Advanced Biology in Grenoble for assisting with adhesion imaging, Acknowledgments: We thank M. Piel and P. Maiuri for valuable discussions and sharing the cell race data with us. We also thank T. Boudou and M. Théry for critical discussions, J. Bernard for technical assistance, and members of the MOTIV team at LiPhy for support

K. Hennig, I. Wang, P. Moreau, L. Valon, S. Debeco et al., , p.5670

, Sci Adv REFERENCES

, This article cites 50 articles, 13 of which you can access for free PERMISSIONS, 20005.